Structural methods of conflict management in brief. Conflict management: basic methods and options

Conflict management in an organization helps reduce the negative impact of clashes and resolve seemingly irreconcilable differences.

Conflict management in an organization should be considered from two sides:

Internal (individual). Has a personal, psychological orientation of behavioral reactions during an opposing interaction.
External. Displays the organizational and technical aspects of the management process. In this case, the person of management can be a manager or an ordinary employee.

Conflict is an integral part of an organization’s activities, and therefore it is necessary to be able to manage this phenomenon.

There are five main methods of conflict resolution:

1. EVADERATION

This style implies that a person is trying to avoid conflict. As conflict experts note, this means not getting into situations that provoke the emergence of contradictions. Do not enter into discussions on issues that may lead to disagreement. Then you won’t have to go into an irritated state while trying to solve the problem.”

2. SMOOTHING

This style is characterized by behavior that dictates the following beliefs. That there is no need to be angry, we are all one happy team, therefore, there is no need to rock the boat. The smoother tries not to let out signs of conflict and bitterness, turning the desire for unanimity.

However, they completely lose sight of the problem that was at the heart of the conflict. You can extinguish the other person's desire for conflict by repeating, "It's not a big deal." Consequently, peace and harmony comes, but in fact, the problem remains.

Manifested emotions are extinguished, but they remain inside and accumulate. General anxiety becomes apparent, and the likelihood that an explosion will eventually occur increases.

3. COERCTION

This style is dominated by attempts to force people to accept their point of view at any cost. The one who tries to do this is not interested in the opinions of others. A person using this style usually behaves aggressively. And he uses power through coercion to influence others.

Conflict can be brought under control by showing that you have the strongest power. Thus, suppressing his opponent, snatching a concession from him according to the right of his superior. This coercive style can be effective in situations where the leader has significant power over subordinates.

The disadvantage of this style is that it suppresses the initiative of subordinates. Creates a high probability that not all important points will be considered. In addition, only one point of view is presented. This can cause resentment, especially among younger and more educated staff.

4 COMPROMISE

This style is characterized by accepting the other party's point of view, but only to some extent. The ability to compromise is highly valued in management situations. Because ill will is reduced to a minimum. And this makes it possible to quickly resolve the conflict.

However, using compromise early in the conflict may interfere with the diagnosis of the problem. And reduce the time for searching for alternatives. Such a compromise means agreement only to avoid a quarrel. You can even refuse logical actions.

5. SOLVING THE PROBLEM

This style is about accepting differences of opinion and being willing to listen to other points of view. In order to understand the causes of the conflict and find the optimal solution for all parties.

One who uses this style does not try to achieve his goal at the expense of others. He is rather looking for the best solution to a conflict situation.

Emotions can only be eliminated by talking with a person who has a different view of the situation from yours. Deep Scan and conflict resolution are possible. This alone requires maturity and the art of working with people.

This method of resolving conflict (by solving a problem) helps create an atmosphere of sincerity in the team. All this is necessary for the success of the individual and the company as a whole.

Conflict and stress management

The next stage of conflict as a process is its management. Depending on how effective conflict management will be and what model of behavior will be used.

The consequences may be functional or dysfunctional. Which in turn will affect the possibility of future conflicts: eliminate causes or create new ones.

If you are experiencing excessive stress at work, try the following methods:

Develop a system of priorities in your work;
! If the request is not within your competence. Or, you can no longer take on more work;
Establish an effective and reliable relationship with your boss;
Don't agree with your manager or anyone who makes conflicting demands (role conflict);
Discuss feelings of boredom or lack of interest in work with your supervisor;
Find time to relax every day.

To manage others while achieving high productivity and low stress levels, you must:

Assess the abilities, needs and aptitudes of your employees. Try to choose the amount and type of work that matches their performance;
Allow your employees to refuse any task. If they have sufficient grounds for this;
Clearly describe specific areas of authority, responsibility, and performance expectations;
Use a leadership style appropriate to the needs of the situation;
Provide adequate rewards for effective performance;
Act as a mentor to your subordinates. By developing their abilities and discussing difficult issues with them.

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Functions of conflict management in an organization

It is important to timely and accurately identify the true causes of conflict situations. It is important that this conflict does not develop into personal hostility.

Effective conflict management in an organization involves cooperation between conflicting parties. Conflict management in an organization at different stages can be presented in the form of the following table.

Conflict forecasting is one of the most important functions of conflict management. Focused on identifying the causes of conflicts and assessing the situation in the team.

This function includes the study of objective and subjective conditions. Contains factors of interaction between people. Their individual psychological characteristics, as well as possible changes in the production and organizational structure of the organization.

Conflict prevention is also based on their prediction. Actions based on neutralizing the factors causing the conflict are used.

Thus, any leader is interested in ensuring that the conflict is resolved quickly. Since its consequences can entail considerable moral or material damage.

With an experienced leader, conflicts can become a means of managing people, groups and improving the level of the organization.

Conflict management system

A key role in conflict resolution is played by the ability to correctly identify and formulate a conflict management system.

The conflict management system at an enterprise is a holistic structure. Which is interconnected by information connections between the elements of the object and the control body.

This structure reflects the structure of the management system. The essence of which is management functions, vertical and horizontal relationships between management levels. Which displays quantity and relationship structural divisions within each level.

Functional structure

The basic principle of the structure is a specialized division of labor and sphere of control. The decision to create a conflict management system in an organization is always made by senior management. Heads of lower and middle management only help him by providing the necessary information.

In a broad sense, the task is to choose the right conflict management system for the enterprise. Which most meets the goals and objectives of the organization. It also interacts with internal and external factors.

Ways to manage conflicts in an organization

Each of the organization’s employees is an individual, with his own set of abilities, skills, knowledge and skills. Which affects his behavior and relationships with other people.

Differences in personalities and goals often create conflict situations in companies. Collisions and a state when the conscious behavior of one conflicts with the interests of the other. In most cases, conflicts do not end well, so the task is to prevent them.

There are two ways to manage conflicts in an organization: structural and interpersonal.

Conflict management methods

Structural management methods are management that is associated with changes in the structure of the organization. To the redistribution of powers, innovations in labor organization, incentive system, etc. Managing conflicts in an organization, structural methods include:

Clarification of job requirements
Reward system
Coordination and integration mechanisms
Setting corporate goals

Explaining job requirements is one of the effective methods management and conflict prevention. Each specialist must clearly understand. What results are expected from him. What are his responsibilities? Responsibilities and powers are defined.

The method is implemented in the form of drawing up appropriate job descriptions (job descriptions). Distribution of rights and responsibilities across management levels. Introduction of a clear definition of the evaluation system, its criteria, consequences (promotion, dismissal, incentives).

Various types of conflicts are interconnected in an organization. In the process of development, conflicts of one type can turn into conflicts of another type. For example, intrapersonal conflicts can turn into interpersonal ones, and interpersonal ones into group conflicts, and vice versa.

When a conflict situation arises or the conflict itself begins. Participants need to choose the style of their further behavior. So that the conflict has a lesser impact on one’s own interests.

K. Thomas and R. Kilmann identified the following five main methods of conflict management:

Evasion
Confrontation
Compliance
Cooperation
Compromise

This classification is based on two independent parameters:

The degree to which one’s own interests are realized and one’s goals are achieved
Level of cooperation, taking into account the interests of the other party

Finding the causes of conflicts reveals their sources and helps further resolution. The main causes of conflict are problems, phenomena or events that precede the conflict. And in certain situations they call it.

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Conflict can arise between members of the same team or between two or more teams.

Conflict is an interaction between subjects that is characterized by their confrontation based on opposing motives (needs, interests, goals, ideals, beliefs) or judgments (opinions, views, assessments) (see Fig. 22).

Conflict helps to identify a diversity of points of view, provides additional information, and allows one to identify a larger number of alternatives and problems. This makes the group's decision-making process more efficient.

Intragroup and intergroup conflicts can arise due to a number of reasons:

limited resources to be distributed;
interdependence of tasks, incorrect distribution of responsibilities;
poor communications;
discrepancy between job requirements and personal needs, goals, and values;
discrepancy between the norms of behavior accepted in the group and the norms of behavior that the employee adheres to;
changes in the balance of power in the group due to a change in leadership;
emergence of an informal leader;
differences in power and status;
the emergence of coalitions.
differences in goals, values, methods of work;
psychological incompatibility;
different levels of education, professionalism;
low level of performance discipline;
unfulfilled expectations;
unequal contribution to the cause;
poor moral and psychological climate in the team;
violation of ethical standards (rudeness, arrogance, ignoring other people's opinions);
violation of labor laws.

Rice. 22. The concept of conflict. 49

Conflict management is a targeted impact on the causes of conflict in order to eliminate them (minimize them) or correct the behavior of participants in the conflict or maintain the level of conflict within controlled limits to ensure the required level of organizational performance. Conflict management methods are divided into two groups: methods of conflict prevention and methods of influencing a conflict situation in order to resolve it (see Fig. 23).

Methods for preventing conflicts in a group represent a set of methods of influencing a group, which reduces the likelihood of intragroup and intergroup conflicts. They include all structural methods of conflict management, elimination of the object of conflict and the negative evaluation formula.

Rice. 23.

Structural methods change the structure of tasks for employees or the structure of a group or organization as a whole. Structural methods of conflict resolution include the following.

1. Clarification of job requirements. Employees must know the parameters and level of results expected of them, the system of authority, responsibility and interactions with other team members and management, the rules and procedures used to complete tasks.
2. Use of coordination and integration mechanisms, that improve alignment between departments and individuals. These include:
- the distribution of powers that regulates human interaction, decision making, and information flows within and between groups;
- special services that communicate between functional departments;
- meetings common to several groups;
- cross-functional and task forces;
- curators who, if necessary, can intervene in the conflict and help resolve controversial issues;
- merging different departments and giving them a common task.
3. Setting comprehensive goals in front of the units. Their implementation requires the joint efforts of two or more groups, departments, divisions. The idea behind these overarching goals is to bring groups together and direct the efforts of all participants towards achieving a common goal.
4. Using the reward system to encourage behavior aimed at avoiding the negative consequences of conflicts. In a broader sense, the system of rewards and labor incentives can be considered as a basis for preventing conflicts. These forms of labor incentives include the following:
- reconstruction of the labor process: expanding the range of labor functions, creating attractive jobs, intellectualization of labor;
- participation in decision making: participation in the development of the group’s production policy, expanding the independence of groups and their workers in solving problems that arise in groups;
- development of a sense of belonging: participation in profits, participation in the capital of the enterprise;
- flexible working hours: flexible working hours, part-time work week.

Eliminating the conflict object involves forcing one of the conflicting groups to renounce the object of the conflict in favor of the other party.

One of the effective methods of conflict prevention is negative evaluation formula. In order for a negative assessment of a subordinate’s actions to be effective and not lead to conflict, the manager’s statements must contain four main points:

recording a general positive assessment of the employee as an employee and a person (for example, you can say: “I have always respected you for your thoroughness and reliability in your work”);
formulating a critical assessment (the sentence may look like this: “But today, after reading your report, I see that you were mistaken...”);
recognition that the employee is a good professional, despite the fact that he made a mistake (for example, there may be such a phrase: “Everyone makes mistakes. Your high business qualities for me beyond any doubt");
building a positive outlook for the future (you can say: “I’m sure that tomorrow you will be able to fix everything and not make such mistakes in the future”).

Methods of influencing a conflict situation include three groups of methods: administrative, interpersonal and mediation.

Administrative methods involve using the leader's power resource to change the composition of the group, joining one of the conflicting groups as an observer, increasing available resources, or conducting negotiations with conflicting parties as a mediator.

Interpersonal methods of conflict resolution were proposed by K.U. Thomas and R.H. Killman in 1972. They identified five methods of conflict resolution (Fig. 24), presented in the form of a matrix, which is built on the basis of two variables: interest in oneself and interest in others. Interest is measured as low and high. The level of focus on one’s own interests or the interests of an opponent depends on three conditions:

1) the content of the subject of the conflict;
2) values of interpersonal relationships;
3) individual psychological characteristics of the individual.

Rice. 24.

1. Avoidance, avoidance of conflict is associated with the lack of desire of the group to defend its rights, express its position, cooperate with others, or solve the problem itself. This method involves avoiding responsibility for decisions. The group still has the opportunity to exit the conflict interaction without compromising its interests, but without resolving the conflict itself.
2. Coercion, conflict resolution by force characterized by an active struggle of a group for its interests, but without taking into account the interests of the other side.
3. Smoothing. The group's actions are aimed at maintaining or restoring favorable relations with the opponent by smoothing out differences at the expense of its own interests.
4. Compromise characterized by moderate consideration of the interests of each party. The implementation of this method is associated with negotiations, during which each party makes concessions, and a certain middle way of interaction between opponents is found, more or less satisfying both.
5. Cooperation based on recognition of differences in the opinions of opponents, and a willingness to familiarize themselves with other points of view in order to understand the causes of the conflict and find methods of solving the problem acceptable to both sides. In this case search is underway the best option for resolving a conflict situation.

Mediation (mediation). In this case, a third party is involved to resolve disagreements - an intermediary (mediator). This could be a team leader, a manager high level, human resources specialist or corporate mediator. The mediator can discuss the essence of the problem with each of the conflicting parties and propose a solution. If it is not possible to find an option that suits both parties, the parties should contact a mediator with a request to act as a judge in their dispute.

In Russia this is a fairly new method, although, for example, in the USA it has been used for about 30 years. Mediation can be used both when considering commercial disputes, conflict situations, and labor, social, domestic, interpersonal clashes, etc. The corporate mediator has long become part of the senior management of leading Western companies. This person focuses on introducing alternative methods for resolving internal corporate (labor) disputes, organizes appropriate training, evaluates disputes from the point of view of their mediaability and, if necessary, selects an appropriate third neutral person to resolve the situation, sometimes, however, he himself acts in this capacity. Mediation is a voluntary procedure - the decision to resolve the conflict is made by the participants themselves. In this regard, it is necessary to understand which situation is mediable and which is not. It is important to note that the mediator does not offer his own solution; it must be determined by the parties. The disadvantage of this method is the duration of its implementation - the entire mediation process takes from several hours to 2 - 3 days.

In case of radical changes (in a conflict between an individual and a group), they are effective organizational and procedural manipulations. These include:

formation of the primary installation;
provision of materials only the day before;
avoiding repeated discussion;
the atmosphere is tense due to the “aggressors”;
primary continuity in voting;
suspending the discussion on the desired option;
selective loyalty in compliance with regulations;
decision-making “pseudo-de jure”;
break in discussion;
letting off steam on unimportant issues"
“accidental” lack of documents;
excessive information;
“loss” of documents and others.

Comp. from: Fundamentals of Management / V.R. Vesnin. - 3rd ed., add. and corrections, M: LLC “T.D.’ Elit-2000”’”, 2006. P.363

PLAN
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… 3

Conclusion……………………………………………………………... 16
List of references……………………………..... 17

INTRODUCTION

The problem of conflicts is a very important socio-psychological problem, but at the same time little studied.
In domestic and foreign literature there are different views on conflicts, their nature, and social role. Opposite positions are represented, on the one hand, by theories of conflict-free, harmonious development of social groups and, on the other hand, by views on conflicts as a natural, inevitable and even necessary phenomenon.
Conflictology as a science was formed recently, but it helps to choose a way of behavior in difficult situations, to adequately respond to the actions of others at work, at home, and on vacation. The ability to analyze the causes and dynamics of conflicts, knowledge of the rules of behavior in conflict situations are necessary for every person, since they are important conditions for the harmonization of human relations. Conflictology is especially important for managers, administrative and managerial personnel, and teachers, since managing people and working with them is replete with conflict situations. According to sociological research, approximately one quarter of a manager's activity is related to conflict resolution.
Conflict (from the point of view of domestic psychology) is a confrontation between subjects caused by difficult to resolve and subjectively significant contradictions, accompanied by acute emotions and experiences.
Social connections inherent in society as a complex system and an entire education are stable and are reproduced in the historical process, passing from one generation of people to another. They are real because they take place when joint activities at a specific time and to achieve specific goals. These connections and relationships are established not at the whim of anyone, but objectively, under the influence of the conditions in which a person exists, acts, and creates.
The most important thing for a person is to belong to a community of his own kind. Since ancient times, the circumstances of human life have developed in such a way that he was destined to cooperate with other people. At the same time, in the process of interaction between individuals and the complication of social connections at a certain stage of social development, in mutual relations, along with cooperation, rivalry, competition, psychological incompatibility, opposition of interests and the choice of means to achieve goals began to appear. The aggravation of such contradictions ultimately led to active confrontation and conflicts.
Conflict in an organization is a clash between subjects of joint activity (individuals, groups, structures) within an organization or interorganizational space.
The organization is the basic unit in the structure of modern society. All people belong to one or another organization, the basis of which is the collective, and without it the functioning of the organization is not possible.
A work collective is a formal community of people united by joint activities to achieve certain goals.
An organization is a complex system with many elements, a variety of horizontal and vertical connections, relationships of power and subordination. Therefore, a variety of conflicts arise in it.
Conflict situations arise in all spheres of public life in economics, politics, everyday life, culture or ideology. They are inevitable as an integral component of the development of society and man himself.

Management of any organization is defined as an integrative process through which professionally trained individuals manage by setting goals and devising ways to achieve them. The management process involves performing the functions of standardization, planning, organization, coordination, motivation, control, accounting and analysis, by carrying out which managers provide conditions for productive effective work of employees employed in the organization and obtaining results that meet the goals. In addition, management is also the ability to achieve set goals by directing labor, intelligence, and motives of behavior of people working in an organization.
Organizational and managerial conflict is a conflict between members of the management organization, managers and performers, between primary groups and various divisions in a given management system regarding the goals, methods and means of management and organizational activities, as well as its results and social consequences. Like other types of conflicts, organizational and managerial conflict means a clash of subjects associated, in one way or another, with conflicting positions, goals, values and ideas about the social process of people’s lives. Within an organization, behind conflicting actions is not the opposition of the social interests of the members of the organization, but only the moment of discrepancy between the general interest and the individual, an element of infringement of the latter, or a contradiction in the understanding of the role of both for the behavior and activity of the subject, be it a leader or a performer.
In Russia, until recently, there were no conflict management workers in the management systems of organizations, and the functions of preventing and resolving conflicts were not included in the job descriptions of managers and specialists. Their responsibility was only to disguise the presence of inevitable contradictions and conflicts in the team.
Where conflicts arose, their resolution was entrusted to trade unions and other public organizations. Managers also had to resolve conflicts. This or that outcome of the intervention depended on personal experience and the leader's intuition.
Social life is unthinkable without a collision of ideas, life positions, goals, both of individual people and small and large groups, and other communities. Differences and contradictions between different parties constantly arise, often developing into conflicts. It is necessary to appropriately manage this process, the task of which should be to prevent the occurrence of unwanted, negative conflicts, and to give inevitable conflict situations a constructive nature.
Currently, HR services, along with others, perform the following functions:

The functions of managing industrial and social conflicts, as well as stress, should be performed not only by managers, but also by conflict specialists and specially created units. In many large and medium-sized enterprises, they are, in particular, assigned to newly created departments labor relations.
Managers and specialists of the organization's labor relations department attach due importance to the physiological and psychological compatibility of team members, take into account the gender and age characteristics of people working together, their temperaments and characters. All this is taken into account when preventing conflict situations and developing appropriate recommendations and proposals. For example, taking into account the age characteristics of team members, managers at all levels are recommended to show a personal example of respect for employees of older age categories, apply educational methods (persuasion, reprimand) in relation to young workers, determine the degree of compatibility of employees using special tests, using their results when giving instructions for jointly performed work.
Also in the field of view of the organization's leaders is stimulating the constructive behavior of employees in conflict situations. Taking into account the business or personal nature of the emerging conflict, the goal is to either give it a positive direction or eliminate the source of tension itself. In this case, means of both encouraging persuasion and censure and motivation are used. Such measures help to increase the efficiency of joint activities of employees and help minimize the negative consequences of conflict clashes.

Conflict management is a process of purposeful influence on the organization’s personnel in order to eliminate the causes that gave rise to the conflict and to bring the behavior of the parties to the conflict in accordance with the established norms of relationships.
There are many methods of conflict management. They can be broadly divided into several groups, each of which has its own area of application:

Intrapersonal methods influence an individual and consist of the correct organization of one’s own behavior, the ability to express one’s point of view without causing a defensive reaction on the part of the opponent. Often a method is used of conveying to another person one or another attitude towards a certain subject without accusations or demands, but so that the other person changes his attitude. This method allows a person to defend his position without turning his opponent into an opponent. It is especially useful when a person wants to convey something to another, but does not want him to take it negatively and go on the attack.
Structural methods primarily affect participants in organizational conflicts that arise due to improper distribution of functions, rights and responsibilities, poor work organization, unfair system of motivation and incentives for workers, etc. Such methods include: clarifying job requirements, using coordination goals, and creating reasonable reward systems.
Clarifying job requirements is one of the effective methods of preventing and resolving conflicts. Each employee must clearly understand what his duties, responsibilities, and rights are. The method is implemented through the preparation of appropriate job descriptions and the development of documents regulating the distribution of functions, rights and responsibilities across management levels.
The use of coordination mechanisms involves the involvement of structural divisions of the organization or officials who, if necessary, can intervene in the conflict and help resolve controversial issues between the conflicting parties. One of the most common mechanisms is the hierarchy of authority, which streamlines the interaction of people, decision-making and information flows within an organization.
Developing or clarifying organizational goals allows you to combine the efforts of all employees of the organization and direct them to achieve the set goals.
Creating reasonable reward systems can also be used to manage conflict situations, since fair rewards have a positive effect on people's behavior and help avoid destructive conflicts.
Interpersonal methods assume that when a conflict situation is created or the conflict itself begins to unfold, its participants need to choose the form and style of their further behavior in order to minimize damage to their interests. You should pay attention to conflict behavior styles such as coercion and problem solving.
Coercion means trying to force someone to accept their point of view at any cost. The one who tries to do this is not interested in the opinions of others. A person who uses this approach usually behaves aggressively and uses power through coercion to influence others.
The coercive style can be effective in situations where the leader has significant power over subordinates. The disadvantage of this style is that it suppresses the initiative of subordinates, creating a greater likelihood that some important factors will not be taken into account, since only one point of view is presented. This style may cause resentment, especially among the younger and more educated part of the staff.
Resolving a problem means accepting differences of opinion and being willing to listen to other points of view to understand the causes of the conflict and find a course of action that is acceptable to all parties. Anyone who uses this style does not strive to achieve their goal at the expense of others, but rather looks for the best option for overcoming a conflict situation. In complex situations where diversity of thought and accurate information are essential to sound decision making, conflicting opinions must be encouraged and the situation managed using a problem-solving style.
Negotiations, as a method of conflict resolution, are a set of tactics aimed at finding mutually acceptable solutions for the conflicting parties.
In order for negotiations to become possible, certain conditions are necessary: the existence of interdependence of the parties involved in the conflict; absence of significant differences in the capabilities (powers) of the parties to the conflict; correspondence of the stage of development of the conflict to the possibilities of negotiations; participation in negotiations between parties who can make decisions in the current situation. Every conflict goes through several stages in its development. At some of them, negotiations may not be accepted, since it is too early, while at others it will be too late to start them.
Retaliatory aggressive actions as methods are extremely undesirable for overcoming conflict situations. The use of these methods leads to resolving a conflict situation from a position of strength, including the use of brute force and violence. However, there are situations when conflict resolution is possible only by these methods.
Three areas of conflict management have emerged: avoiding conflict, suppressing conflict and managing conflict itself. Each of these areas is implemented using special methods.
The advantage of this method of avoiding conflict is that the decision is usually made quickly. This method is used when a given conflict is unnecessary, when it does not fit the situation in the organization, or the costs of a possible conflict are very high. It is also advisable to use it in cases:

important issues

necessary information

etc.................

There are several methods for managing conflict situations:

1. Structural:

a) Clarification of job requirements. One of best methods management, preventing dysfunctional conflict - clarification of what results are expected from each employee and department. Parameters such as the level of results to be achieved, who provides and who receives various information, the system of authority and responsibility, and clearly defined policies, procedures and rules should be mentioned here. Moreover, the manager clarifies all these issues not for himself, but so that his subordinates understand well what is expected of them and in what situation.

b) Use of special mechanisms, i.e. If subordinates have disagreements on any issue, then, in order to avoid conflict, they turn to their common boss, inviting him to make a decision. That. establishing a hierarchy in subordination eliminates conflicts in interaction.
c) Setting organization-wide integrated goals is another structural method of managing a structural situation. Effective implementation of these goals requires the combined efforts of two or more employees, groups, or departments. The idea that is embedded in these higher goals is to direct the efforts of all participants to achieve a common goal.
d) The structure of the reward system. Rewards can be used as a method of managing conflict situations, influencing people's behavior to avoid dysfunctional consequences. People who contribute to the achievement of organization-wide integrated goals, help other groups in the organization and try to approach the problem in a comprehensive manner should be rewarded with gratitude, bonuses, recognition or promotions. It is equally important that the reward system does not reward unconstructive behavior by individuals or groups.

2. Interpersonal:

a) Avoidance - this style implies that a person is trying to escape the conflict. As Robert Blake and Jane Mouton note, one way to resolve conflict is “to avoid getting into situations that provoke contradictions, and not to engage in discussions of issues that are fraught with disagreement. Then you won’t have to get into an excited state, even if you are trying to solve a problem.”

b) Smoothing - this style is characterized by behavior that is dictated by the belief that there is no point in getting angry because “we are all one happy team and we should not rock the boat.” The “Smoother” tries not to let out signs of conflict and bitterness, appealing to the need for solidarity. Unfortunately, they completely forget about the problem underlying the conflict.
c) Coercion - within this style, attempts to force people to accept their point of view at any cost prevail. The one who tries to do this is not interested in the opinions of others. A person who uses this style usually behaves aggressively and uses power through coercion to influence others. It can cause resentment, especially among younger and more educated staff.
d) Compromise - this style is characterized by accepting the point of view of the other side, but only to some extent. The ability to compromise is highly valued in management situations, as it minimizes ill will and often allows conflict to be resolved quickly to the satisfaction of both parties.
e) Solving the problem, acknowledging differences of opinion and being willing to listen to other points of view in order to understand the causes of the conflict and find a course of action acceptable to all parties. Anyone who uses this style does not try to achieve their goal at the expense of others, but rather looks for the best solution to a conflict situation.

The technique consists of five stages:

Define the problem in terms of goals, not solutions.
Once the problem is identified, identify solutions that are acceptable to both parties.
Focus on the problem, not on the other party's personal qualities.
Create an atmosphere of trust by increasing mutual influence and information sharing.
When communicating, create a positive attitude towards each other by showing sympathy and listening to the other party's opinions, and minimizing expressions of anger and threats.

Before moving on to resolving the conflict, you should try to answer the following questions:

do you want a favorable outcome;
what you need to do to better control your emotions;
how would you feel in the place of the conflicting parties;
is a mediator needed to resolve the conflict;
in which atmosphere (situation) people could better open up, find common ground and develop their own solutions.

Concepts of leadership and management

IN currently There are two points of view in the interpretation of the concepts of “leadership” and “management”. The first is the separation of these two concepts according to several criteria (in domestic psychology), the second point of view is that these concepts are practically identical to each other (in foreign psychology).

The manager is appointed externally by higher management, receives appropriate authority, and has the right to apply sanctions. The leader emerges from among the people around him, who are essentially equal to him in status.

The leader is mainly called upon to regulate interpersonal relations in the group, while the leader organizes the official relations of the group as a social organization.
Leadership can be stated in a microenvironment (that is, a small group). Leadership is an element of the macroenvironment, that is, it is associated with the system of social relations.
Leadership arises spontaneously; the leader of any real social group is either appointed or elected.
The phenomenon of leadership is less stable, the promotion of a leader in to a greater extent depends on the mood in the group, while the leader is a more stable phenomenon.
Management of subordinates, in contrast to leadership, has a much more specific system of various sanctions that are not in the hands of the leader.
The leader's decision-making process is more complex and mediated by many different circumstances, while the leader makes more direct decisions regarding group activities
The leader’s sphere of activity is mainly a small group, where he is the leader; the leader’s sphere of activity is wider, since he represents small group in the wider social system.
Management and leadership are means of coordinating the relations of members of a social group.
Management, like leadership, is characterized by a certain subordination of relationships. In the first case, the relationship is clearly defined and secured job descriptions, and in the second, the relationships are not outlined in any way.

Power - This is an opportunity to influence people's behavior.

Influence is the behavior of an individual that can make changes in the behavior, attitudes, feelings, etc. of another person. For leadership and influence to be effective, leaders exercise power. The manager has the opportunity to punish the subordinate. A leader has influence through his subordinates' belief in his competence. The leader is a standard, an example for subordinates who want to become just like him. Managers have the authority to manage other people. The staff obeys the manager because they believe that he has the right to give orders.

A leader becomes attractive to followers due to the ability to see what will ultimately be achieved as a result of his and the followers' efforts. However, this is not any goal or any state of the organization in the future. It's more about what followers want or can have. In addition, a vision becomes attractive if it is larger or better than the existing reality, that is, to a certain extent, idealization of the future state is allowed. The vision captures the imagination of followers and motivates them to commit themselves to realizing it to the extent that they share the leader's vision. A vision that inspires strength in followers, makes them believe in the success of the business.

Specifics of the situational approach to the phenomenon of leadership in management.

The situational-integrated approach examines the driving forces of development of a leader’s personality in various management situations and life events. To study the mechanisms of development of a leader's personality, complex (assessment of activity in the entire scope of its functions) and local (assessment of one function) forecasting and expressive assessment are distinguished.

Neither the personality approach nor the behavioral approach has been able to identify a logical relationship between a leader's personality or behavior on the one hand and effectiveness on the other. This does not mean that personal qualities and behavior are not important to management. On the contrary, they are essential components of success. However, more recent research has shown that additional factors may play a critical role in leadership effectiveness. These situational factors include the needs and personal characteristics of subordinates, the nature of the task, environmental demands and influences, and the information available to the manager.

The situational approach to the study of leadership examines the interaction of various situational variables in order to discover the cause-and-effect relationship in the leadership relationship that predicts the leader's likely behavior and the consequences of that behavior. At the end of the 50s. of the last century, researchers put forward theses that laid the foundations for a situational approach to the study of leadership in an organization:

· the similarity between organizational structures indicates a set of qualities of a leader who, in given conditions, can act in his role;

· the uniqueness of any individual organizational structure forces one to take into account situational factors influencing the leader’s behavior;

· if the situation changes, it is impossible to determine which qualities of a leader will be optimal.

To accurately assess the situation, the manager must have a good understanding of the abilities of his subordinates and his own, the nature of the tasks, needs, authority and quality of information. Therefore, a leader must always be prepared to reassess judgment and, if necessary, change his leadership style accordingly.

Situational leadership models, which focus on the impact of external factors, complement each other in understanding the phenomenon of leadership in an organization. They attempt to identify different leadership styles and use situational variables to justify their effectiveness. At the same time, the models have significant differences in the set of leadership styles, in the set of situational factors and ways of finding connections between them.

However, leadership, like management, is to some extent an art. This may be the reason why researchers have failed to develop or substantiate any theory. In some situations, managers can achieve effectiveness in their work by structuring tasks, planning and organizing tasks and roles, and being caring and supportive. In other situations, the manager may find it more appropriate to exert influence by allowing subordinates to participate to some extent in decision making, rather than structuring the terms of work. Over time, these same managers will find it necessary to change style in response to changes in the nature of the task, challenges faced by subordinates, pressure from senior management, and many other factors specific to the organization.

It is obvious that none of the approaches fully characterizes the concept of leadership, and this suggests a comprehensive description of the phenomenon of leadership.

The concept of need, motive and reward: relationship, mutual influence and main components.

Motive – a set of internal motivations for activity, based on conscious or unconscious needs, interest, ideas about values, etc. As a rule, a person performs actions under the influence of a number of motives, which represent a disposition of motives, but among them a leading, dominant motive can be distinguished. The disposition of motives and the leading motive are not constant; their essence is influenced by the external environment and personality characteristics.

Motive - motivating reason, reason for some action; a material or ideal object, the achievement of which is the meaning of activity.

Extrinsic motivation (extreme) - motivation not related to content certain activities, but conditioned by circumstances external to the subject.

Intrinsic motivation (intrinsic) - motivation associated not with external circumstances, but with the very content of the activity.

Positive and negative motivation . Motivation based on positive incentives is called positive. Motivation based on negative incentives is called negative.

Reward - this is everything that a person considers valuable to himself. But people have specific concepts of value, and therefore the assessment of reward and its relative value is different.

Intrinsic reward the work itself gives. For example, this is a feeling of achieving a result, the content and significance of the work performed, and self-esteem. Friendships and communication that arise during work are also seen as intrinsic rewards. The simplest way to ensure internal rewards is to create appropriate working conditions and accurately define the task.

Extrinsic reward - does not arise from the work itself, but is given by the organization. Examples of extrinsic rewards are salary, promotion, symbols of job status and prestige (such as a corner Personal Area), praise and recognition, as well as additional benefits (extra vacation, company car, payment of certain expenses and insurance).

Need - this is the need experienced and realized by a person for what is necessary to maintain his body and develop his personality. The need is usually directed towards an object.

Classification of needs:

biological needs (experience of the need for breathing, nutrition, water, normal heat exchange, movement, self-preservation, preservation of the species and other needs associated with the biological organization of man);
social needs (the need of the individual for diverse relationships with other people, for self-realization, self-affirmation, public recognition of one’s merits);
ideal needs (knowledge of the surrounding world as a whole and in its particulars, awareness of one’s place in this world, search for the meaning of one’s existence).
physiological;
existential;
social;
prestigious;
spiritual;
educational;
aesthetic

Content theories of motivation

Self-affirmation motive - the desire to establish oneself in society; associated with self-esteem, ambition, self-love. A person tries to prove to others that he is worth something, strives to obtain a certain status in society, wants to be respected and appreciated. Sometimes the desire for self-affirmation is referred to as prestige motivation (the desire to obtain or maintain a high social status).

Motive for identification with another person - the desire to be like a hero, idol, authoritative person (father, teacher, etc.). This motive encourages you to work and develop. It is especially relevant for teenagers who try to copy the behavior of other people.

The desire to be like an idol - an essential motive of behavior, under the influence of which a person develops and improves. Identification with another person leads to an increase in the individual’s energy potential due to the symbolic “borrowing” of energy from the idol (object of identification): strength, inspiration, and the desire to work and act as the hero (idol, father, etc.) did.

Power motive - the individual's desire to influence people. Power motivation (the need for power), under some circumstances, can be a significant driving force of human action. This is the desire to take a leadership position in a group (collective), an attempt to lead people, determine and regulate their activities.

Procedural-substantive motives - motivation to activity by the process and content of the activity, and not by external factors. The meaning of activity during the actualization of procedural and content motives lies in the activity itself (the process and content of activity are the factor that encourages a person to show physical and intellectual activity).

Extrinsic (external) motives - such a group of motives when the motivating factors lie outside the activity. In the case of extrinsic motives, activity is encouraged not by the content or process of the activity, but by factors that are not directly related to it (for example, prestige or material factors).

Self-development motive - desire for self-development, self-improvement. This is an important motive that encourages an individual to work hard and develop. According to Abraham Maslow, this is the desire to fully realize one’s abilities and the desire to feel competent. As a rule, moving forward always requires a certain amount of courage. A person often holds on to the past, to his achievements, peace and stability. Fear of risk and the threat of losing everything holds him back on the path of self-development.

Process theories of motivation in management.

The object of study is the “goal-action” stage. That is, the study of what makes a person act (or not act), direct (or not direct) his efforts to achieve his goal.

Structural methods of conflict management include: clarifying job requirements; formation of coordination and integration mechanisms, general organizational goals; use of reward systems.

- Clarification of job requirements. One of the best management techniques to prevent dysfunctional conflict is to clarify what results are expected from each employee and department. Parameters such as the level of results to be achieved, who provides and who receives various information, the system of authority and responsibility, and clearly defined policies, procedures and rules should be mentioned here. Moreover, the manager clarifies all these issues not for himself, but so that his subordinates understand well what is expected of them and in what situation.
- Coordination and integration mechanisms. This is the application of a coordination mechanism. One of the most common mechanisms is the chain of command. Integration tools such as management hierarchy, the use of cross-functional services, cross-functional groups, task forces and interdepartmental meetings are very useful in managing conflict situations. Research has shown that organizations that maintained the level of integration they desired achieved greater performance than those that did not. For example, a company where there was a conflict between interdependent departments - the sales department and the production department - managed to resolve the problem by creating an intermediate service that coordinates the volume of orders and sales. This service liaised between the sales and production departments and resolved issues such as sales requirements, capacity utilization, pricing and delivery schedules.
- Organizational comprehensive goals. Setting organization-wide integrated goals is another structural method for managing a structural situation. Effective implementation of these goals requires the combined efforts of two or more employees, groups, or departments. The idea that is embedded in these higher goals is to direct the efforts of all participants to achieve a common goal.

For example, if three shifts in a production department are in conflict with each other, you should formulate goals for your department rather than for each shift individually. Likewise, setting clearly defined goals for the entire organization will also encourage department heads to make decisions that benefit the entire organization, not just their own functional area. The statement of the highest principles (values) of the organization reveals the content of complex goals. The company strives to reduce the potential for conflict by setting out organization-wide, integrated goals to achieve greater coherence and performance among all personnel.

Reward system structure. Rewards can be used as a method of managing conflict situations, influencing people's behavior to avoid dysfunctional consequences. People who contribute to the achievement of organization-wide integrated goals, help other groups in the organization and try to approach the problem in a comprehensive manner should be rewarded with gratitude, bonuses, recognition or promotions. It is equally important that the reward system does not reward unconstructive behavior by individuals or groups.

The systematic, coordinated use of rewards and incentives for those who contribute to the achievement of organization-wide goals, helping people understand how they should act in a conflict situation in a manner consistent with the desires of management.

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